Electro-mobility shift-assays (or gel retardation assays) are a standard way of assessing TF-binding. A fragment of DNA of interest is amplified and labeled with a fluorophore. The fragment is left to incubate in a solution containing abundant TF and non-specific DNA (e.g. randomly cleaved DNA from salmon sperm, of all things) and then a gel is run with the incubated sample and a control (sample that has not been in contact with the TF). If the TF has bound the sample, the complex will migrate more slowly than unbound DNA through the gel, and this retarded band can be used as evidence of binding. The unspecific DNA ensures that the binding is specific to the fragment of interest and that any non-specific DNA-binding proteins left-over in the TF purification will bind there, instead of on the fragment of interest. EMSAs are typically carried out in a bunch of fragments, shown as multiple double (control+experiment) lanes in a wide picture. Certain additional controls are run in at least one of the fragments to ascertain specificity. In the most basic of these, specific competitor (the fragment of interest or a known positive control, unlabelled) is added to the reaction. This should sequester the TF and hence make the retardation band disappear, proving that the binding is indeed specific

Primer Extension Assay is a simple method of assessing expression levels. The total RNA produced by the culture is isolated. A short synthetic oligonucleotide primer (complementary to a short sequence on the target RNA) is radiolabelled (usually with 32P) and the primer anneals to the RNA. Reverse transcriptase then extends the RNA producing cDNA. The cDNA is analyzed on a polyacrylamide gel. The amount of cDNA in a band on the gel is proportional to the amount of initial RNA, thus providing expression levels of RNA from the culture.

Non-targeted mutagenesis. Typically accomplished in vivo by means of radiation or a DNA-damaging agent, or in vitro using degenerate PCR. Not frequently used in TF-binding site determination. It is sometimes used to investigate the effect of mutations in transcription factor binding domains, in conjunction with expression assays.

Visual inspection of promoter region to identify putative binding sites based on previous knowledge

Electro-mobility shift-assays (or gel retardation assays) are a standard way of assessing TF-binding. A fragment of DNA of interest is amplified and labeled with a fluorophore. The fragment is left to incubate in a solution containing abundant TF and non-specific DNA (e.g. randomly cleaved DNA from salmon sperm, of all things) and then a gel is run with the incubated sample and a control (sample that has not been in contact with the TF). If the TF has bound the sample, the complex will migrate more slowly than unbound DNA through the gel, and this retarded band can be used as evidence of binding. The unspecific DNA ensures that the binding is specific to the fragment of interest and that any non-specific DNA-binding proteins left-over in the TF purification will bind there, instead of on the fragment of interest. EMSAs are typically carried out in a bunch of fragments, shown as multiple double (control+experiment) lanes in a wide picture. Certain additional controls are run in at least one of the fragments to ascertain specificity. In the most basic of these, specific competitor (the fragment of interest or a known positive control, unlabelled) is added to the reaction. This should sequester the TF and hence make the retardation band disappear, proving that the binding is indeed specific

Primer Extension Assay is a simple method of assessing expression levels. The total RNA produced by the culture is isolated. A short synthetic oligonucleotide primer (complementary to a short sequence on the target RNA) is radiolabelled (usually with 32P) and the primer anneals to the RNA. Reverse transcriptase then extends the RNA producing cDNA. The cDNA is analyzed on a polyacrylamide gel. The amount of cDNA in a band on the gel is proportional to the amount of initial RNA, thus providing expression levels of RNA from the culture.

Non-targeted mutagenesis. Typically accomplished in vivo by means of radiation or a DNA-damaging agent, or in vitro using degenerate PCR. Not frequently used in TF-binding site determination. It is sometimes used to investigate the effect of mutations in transcription factor binding domains, in conjunction with expression assays.

Visual inspection of promoter region to identify putative binding sites based on previous knowledge